Exchange-rate flexibility refers to how freely a country’s currency can fluctuate in value against other currencies. This topic has been debated extensively by economists and policymakers, with strong arguments on both sides. A flexible exchange rate provides more monetary policy autonomy and can act as a shock absorber, while a fixed rate provides more price stability. This article will provide a comprehensive overview of exchange-rate flexibility, its costs and benefits, and policy considerations.
Introduction
The exchange rate is one of the most important prices in an economy, determining the price of exports and imports and influencing capital flows. Policymakers must decide whether to allow the exchange rate to fluctuate freely based on supply and demand (floating exchange rates), or maintain a fixed value either through market intervention or rigidly pegging to another currency (fixed exchange rates).
Most economists today favor floating exchange rates, arguing the benefits of monetary autonomy and automatic adjustment outweigh the volatility costs. But others contend fixed rates provide discipline and certainty. The optimal degree of flexibility is debated, with managed floats and target zones as compromise options.
This article will examine the core issues around exchange-rate flexibility. We’ll start by looking at exchange rate regime choices and trends over time. Then we’ll compare the advantages and disadvantages of floating versus fixed exchange rates. Next we’ll consider managed regimes and target zones as middle ground options. We’ll also examine the relationship between exchange rate flexibility and other policy goals like inflation targeting. Finally, we’ll look at best practices for transitioning between regimes.
Exchange Rate Regimes and Trends
Countries have a choice of exchange rate regimes, ranging from free floats to rigid pegs. The three main types are:
Floating Exchange Rates
The currency’s value is determined by supply and demand in the forex market, with little or no government intervention. This provides maximum flexibility and policy autonomy.
Fixed Exchange Rates
The currency’s value is fixed to another currency, typically the US dollar or euro. The central bank buys and sells currency to maintain the peg. Monetary policy freedom is constrained.
Managed Floats
The exchange rate is mostly market-determined, but the central bank occasionally intervenes to smooth excessive volatility or prevent unwanted appreciation/depreciation. This provides a compromise.
The global trend has been towards increasing exchange rate flexibility over the past 50 years. Pegged regimes dominated in the 1960s, giving way to managed floats after the Bretton Woods system collapsed in 1973. Many emerging markets suffered currency crises in the 1990s and 2000s, forcing abandonment of pegged rates.
As of 2022, the IMF classifies 72% of countries as having floating exchange rates, 24% as pegged or managed, and 4% as having no separate legal tender. But the degree of actual flexibility varies. Some pegs allow ±1% fluctuation bands, while managed floats differ in intervention frequency.
Floating Exchange Rates: Advantages
Why have floating exchange rates become more prevalent over time? Their major economic advantages are:
1. Monetary Policy Autonomy
With floating rates, a central bank can set interest rates targeting domestic conditions like growth and unemployment without worrying about maintaining an external value. This provides more leverage to stimulate demand during recessions or rein it in during overheating.
Pegs constrain monetary policy since interest rates must be kept aligned with the anchor country to maintain the peg. This loss of autonomy can amplify economic volatility.
2. Automatic Adjustment
Floating exchange rates automatically adjust to changing supply and demand. A currency will depreciate if there is an excess supply, making exports more competitive. This acts as a shock absorber for negative external shocks like a drop in export demand or commodity prices.
With fixed rates, the only way to regain competitiveness is painful internal devaluation via wage cuts and deflation. Floating currencies provide more cushion against downturns.
3. Reduced Currency Mismatches
When a country’s liabilities are denominated in a foreign currency but its income is in domestic currency, devaluation can cause balance sheet problems and even insolvency. This currency mismatch risk is lower with floating rates where most borrowing is done domestically.
4. Discourage Speculative Attacks
Pegged exchange rates are prone to speculative attacks if investors sense a devaluation coming. This occurred across Asia and Latin America in the 1990s. Floating rates eliminate the incentive to speculate since fluctuations are ordinary.
Floating Exchange Rates: Disadvantages
However, floating exchange rates also come with economic costs:
1. Price Volatility
With fluctuating rates, there is more uncertainty over future export and import prices. This makes it harder for firms to invest, plan production, and hedge risks. Price swings can also encourage destabilizing speculation.
2. Inflation Volatility
Large currency moves feed quickly into domestic inflation via import prices. Central banks may have to respond with more aggressive interest rate moves.
3. Discourage Trade and Investment
Greater exchange rate uncertainty deters international trade and investment. Firms are less likely to invest abroad if currency fluctuations make returns less predictable.
4. Seigniorage Loss
Central banks earn revenue (“seigniorage”) from issuing currency. This declines when locals shift to holding foreign currency as a stable store of value. Dollarization can occur in countries with very unstable exchange rates.
5. National Pride Impacts
Falling exchange rates are seen as a national symbol by some. Countries may resist depreciation for prestige reasons even if it improves competitiveness.
Fixed Exchange Rates: Advantages
Given the volatility costs, why do some countries still maintain fixed exchange rates? Potential benefits include:
1. Price Stability
Local currency prices are more stable when the exchange rate is fixed. This reduces inflation uncertainty, especially in small open economies reliant on imports. It creates a more favorable environment for trade and investment.
2. Fiscal Discipline
Fixed rates impose discipline on government spending. Printing money to fund deficits will quickly drain reserves needed to maintain the peg. This discourages reckless fiscal policies.
3. Lower Interest Rates
Pegging to a low-inflation anchor currency typically lowers inflation expectations and interest rates in the pegging country. This reduces borrowing costs for both government and business.
4. Central Bank Credibility
Newly independent central banks can establish credibility and an anti-inflation track record by pegging to a hard currency like the euro. This helps rein in past inflation problems.
5. Deepen Trade Integration
Pegging enables small economies to integrate with larger neighbors and take advantage of their monetary stability. For example Hong Kong pegging to the USD.
Fixed Exchange Rates: Disadvantages
However, fixed exchange rates also impose considerable costs:
1. Loss of Policy Autonomy
As noted earlier, pegged rates mean central banks can’t adjust interest rates to domestic conditions. This aggravates economic volatility and crises.
2. Susceptibility to Speculation
Maintaining a semi-fixed peg requires constant market intervention to satisfy arbitrage. This drains reserves and makes the currency prone to speculative attacks.
3. Overvaluation Risk
Politicians may be tempted to keep the exchange rate too high for too long to lower inflation. But overvaluation hurts export competitiveness.
4. Capital Control Requirements
To maintain a fixed rate, controls on capital flows are often needed to prevent destabilizing inflows and outflows. But this reduces efficient capital allocation.
5. Current Account Imbalances
Fixed rates foster unsustainable current account deficits as borrowers take advantage of low interest rates. Eventually a costly adjustment is forced.
Managed Floats and Target Zones
Given the tradeoffs, managed exchange rate regimes seek a middle ground between rigid fixed rates and pure floating. Two options are popular:
Managed Floats
The exchange rate is mostly market determined, but the central bank intervenes periodically to counter disorderly fluctuations or prevent rapid appreciation/depreciation. This provides some short-term stability without sacrificing monetary autonomy. Examples are Singapore and China currently.
Target Zones
Also called target bands or crawling pegs, this involves a managed float confined within a pre-set floor and ceiling. Policymakers pledge to defend these limits through intervention and interest rates, allowing fluctuations within the band. This provides more certainty than pure floats.
In both cases, market forces are still dominant so pegging risks are reduced. But stability-oriented intervention provides some insulation against currency swings. This helps central banks keep inflation in check while retaining policy flexibility.
Inflation Targeting & Exchange Rate Flexibility
Many modern central banks have adopted inflation targeting (IT), publicly committing to keep inflation within a target range over the medium-term. This requires some exchange rate flexibility since forex movements affect imported inflation. Managing both simultaneously is difficult.
But research shows IT is still compatible with exchange rate management:
- IT is most effective under floating rates where forex pass-through impacts are small. But it can work with managed floats provided inflation forecasts guide policy, not the exchange rate itself.
- Central banks should intervene only to smooth excess volatility, not defend a level. Transparency about intervention helps anchor inflation expectations.
- Widening the IT target band can accommodate forex volatility. But the center target should still anchor expectations.
Overall, inflation targeting central banks appear able to limit exchange rate pass-through by using communication tools like forward guidance. This retains policy space for both price and forex stability.
Transitioning Exchange Rate Regimes
Shifting between fixed and floating exchange rate regimes is tricky: an overly rapid transition can spur financial instability. Prudent practices include:
- Don’t re-peg at an overvalued rate after abandoning a peg. Let the currency depreciate to its market level first before considering a new fixed rate.
- Introduce currency flexibility gradually via widening fluctuation bands rather than an abrupt float. This provides time for markets to adjust.
- Maintain tight fiscal policy after a de-pegging to limit inflation pressures on the new float. Monetary discipline is also critical.
- Develop local currency capital markets before floating to reduce dollarization risks. This limits balance sheet mismatches from depreciation.
- Intervene to smooth volatility after initial float rather than immediately allowing free movement. Lean-against currency swings rather than reverse them fully.
- Manage interest rates to low levels after a peg break to discourage speculation. But allow some flexibility to steer inflation.
- Impose selective capital controls initially if inflows/outflows risk destabilizing the currency. But phase these out over 1-2 years as stability returns.
Conclusion
The choice between exchange rate flexibility versus fixity fundamentally involves tradeoffs between policy autonomy and price stability. Floating rates support independent monetary policy, automatic adjustment and reduce speculation. But fixed rates impose discipline and curtail volatility.
In practice, managed float regimes balancing market forces with volatility-smoothing intervention may offer the best of both worlds. But the optimal degree of flexibility depends on country characteristics like openness and capital mobility. Getting exchange rate policy right remains a key challenge for policymakers in an era of volatile global capital flows.